Glossary of Terms

A

Abdominal muscles
The muscles covering that part of the body between the chest and the pelvis and enclosing the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen and pancreas.

Abduct
To pull away from the midline of the body.

Abductors
The outer thigh muscles that act to separate the legs.

Absorption
Flexion or retraction movements to help reduce the pressure build up on skis that result from terrain variations or turn dynamics.

Adduct
To draw toward the midline of the body.

Adductors
The inner thigh muscles that act to pull the legs together.

Affective development
An area of development in humans that focuses on emotional needs.

Aft
Movements that are backwards from a centre point, toward the tail of the skis, or behind the bindings (see also fore).

Alignment
Alignment refers to the positions and movements of a skier’s body parts in relation to each other. The term refers to stance and body movements, as well as issues of boot fitting and canting to adjust for variations in leg and foot configurations. Essential to good skiing; good alignment enhances both performance and safety. Skiers move in many different ways: they flex, extend, angulate, turn, manage pressure and make constant balancing movements. All these movements are made possible as proper allignment allowes the body to move naturally. Good alignment allows the body’s skeletal structure to support much of a skier’s weight and to resist the forces of skiing, therefore freeing the muscles for fine adjustments and balancing responses. Principles of good alignment: (1) Lines through corresponding left and right sides of the body are parallel in both horizontal and vertical planes; (2) In turns the inside half of the body is generally above and ahead of the outside half; (3) Good alignment is the result of a stable, disciplined upper body and active leg rotation.

Alley oop
A freeski manoeuvre generally performed in the halfpipe where the direction of rotation is opposite to the direction of travel.

Anatomical reference planes
The scientific terms for describing human movement. The planes of human movement are frontal, axial and sagittal.

Anatomy
The science of bodily structure.

Angulation
Laterally tipping and flexing certain parts of the body more than others to form angles between body segments. Angulation helps control edge angle and outside ski balance.

Anterior
Near to the front surface of the body (see also posterior).

Apex
In skiing the apex of the turn is in the fall line or control phase of the turn.

Athletic stance
The optimal ski stance in which the centre of gravity is directly above the centre of the base of support and directly between the two skis.

Axis
A line about which something rotates.

B

Balance
Ability to maintain equilibrium.

Balancing movements
Muscular actions to maintain equilibrium or desired alignment on skis. These movements are usually divided into two categories: (1) actions that affect fore/aft balance; and (2) actions that affect lateral balance. Balancing movements will help develop active stance and balance.

Ball and socket joint
Joints in the body that rotate and flex, e.g. the hip and shoulders.

Banking
Initiating lateral movement inside the turn by moving the upper body first.

Base of support
The portion of the ski or skis under the foot or feet.

Biomechanics
Field of study applying the principles of mechanics to the study of animate movement.

Blocking
Any movement or action that reduces or eliminates movement in a given direction.

Braking
In skiing braking is generally referred to in relation to pushing against or resisting the forces and creating friction.

Boot out
To knock the ski off its edge as a result of the boot contacting the snow during a turn.

Breaking wedge
Skiing with the skis in a convergent position with sufficient edge angle to slow or stop the skier. Typically this wedge is wider than a gliding wedge.

C

Camber
The arch that is formed when a ski is on a flat surface, where the middle of a ski sitting in this position is higher than the tip and tail of the ski.

Canting
The process of making lateral adjustments to the skis, boots, bindings for optimal alignment and effective edging.

Carved turns
Turns in which the skis travel on an edge with minimal lateral slipping or skidding.

Cement snow
Uncompacted, heavy snow with a high moisture content.

Centre of gravity
The theoretical point at which all of the body’s mass is considered to be concentrated. The centre of gravity location changes as body position changes and may even be located outside the body.

Centre of mass
See centre of gravity.

Centrifugal force
Effect of acceleration that makes skiers feel like they are being pulled toward the outside of the turn. This pseudo-force results from forces building in a turn, rather than causing the build up of forces.

Centripetal force
The force acting toward the centre of rotation, responsible for keeping a turning skier moving along a curved path.

Closed question
A question that elicits a limited response, e.g. “Are your boots done up firmly?” (see also open questions).

Cognitive development
An area of development that focuses on how humans receive and process information.

Concentric contraction
A muscle contraction that shortens the muscles while generating force (see also isometric contraction and eccentric contraction).

Converging skis
Any ski position in which the tips of the skis are closer than the tail, e.g. a wedge (see also diverging skis).

Corn snow
Pellet sized particles that have formed from repetitive thawing, refreezing and recrystallisation.

Corresponding edges
Inner edge of one ski and the outer edge of the other.

Counter rotation
The upper body twisted in one direction and the lower body twisted in another direction at the same time (see also rotational separation).

Cross over
Moving the centre of gravity forward and across the skis. The centre of gravity moves from the inside of one turn to the inside of the next turn (see also cross under).

Cross under
Movement of the feet and skis under the centre of gravity. The feet move from the outside of one turn to the outside of the next turn leaving the centre of gravity inside each turn (see also cross over).

Crud snow
Settling snow that is cut up by skiers and riders.

D

De-camber
To bend the ski enough that the camber is gone, e.g. flexing the ski during a turn.

Deflection
Using terrain /snow conditions to aid in turning the skis. Direction change occurs because snow pushes on the bottoms of the skis.

Demonstration
Performing a task or exercise as an example for students.

Diverging skis
Any position in which the tails of the skis are closer together than the tips of the skis. When a skier skates or walks in a herringbone the skis are diverging (see also converging skis).

Dynamic
In skiing this generally refers to upper level skiing, where higher levels of ski performance are evident.

Dynamic balance
Balance in motion (see also balance).

Dynamic parallel turn
Turns with more carving than skidding (see also parallel turn).

Drill
A task or exercise that highlights a particular movement or focuses on a particular skill.

Dynamic
In skiing this generally refers to upper level skiing, where higher levels of ski performance are evident.

E

Early rise
When the tips of the skis are designed to shape upwards earlier than a traditional ski (see also rocker).

Eccentric contraction
Muscle contraction involving lengthening of a muscle while developing tension (see also concentric contraction and isometric contraction).

Edge angle
The amount of ski tilt relative to the surface of the snow and to the slope. A ski placed flat on the snow has zero degrees of edge angle.

Edge set
A purposeful edge engagement that provides a platform for the next turn. An edge set usually occurs at the end of a turn (see also platform angle).

Edging movements
Movements that increase or decrease edge angle.

Eversion
Movement of a body part outward, away from the midline of the body such as a lateral rotation of the foot. Typically this is associated with foot pronation (see also inversion).

Exercises
Situations and tasks created to break down and isolate certain movements and skills for development.

Extension
Any movement that increases (i.e. opens) the angle at a joint (see also flexion).

Extrinsic feedback
Feedback provided by an external source, e.g. an observer.

F

Falling leaf
An exercise in which the skier alternatively sideslips forward and backward to move down the hill.

Fall line
The path that a ball would take if you let it roll down the slope i.e. the line of least resistance.

Feel
A mode of communication that requires the instructor to make the student aware of feelings/sensations they may experience when skiing.

Femur
The bone that extends from the pelvis to the knee. The femur is the longest and largest bone in the body.

Fibula
The smaller of the two bones in the lower leg.

Fifty-fifty (50-50)
Skiing straight over a box with both skis following the same direction as the box.

Flexion
Any movement that decreases (i.e. closes) the angle at a joint (see also extension).

Footbed
An insert for shoes or boots designed to support the foot and help provide a neutral stance.

Force
An agent or action that produces a change in direction and/or speed of a body’s motion. External forces include gravity, air resistance, ski to snow interactions etc. Internal force is generated by muscle contraction.

Fore
Toward the tips of the skis, in front of the bindings (see also aft).

Friction
Resistance to an object sliding across a surface. A ski sliding on ice experiences less friction than a ski sliding through wet snow.

G

Garlands
A linked series of half turns which take a skier across the slope without crossing the fall line.

Generative question
A question designed to provide insight into the values and emotions associated with the answer, e.g. “What did you most enjoy about your day?” (see also closed question and open question).

Gliding
Forward sliding of the skis, either in a direct line down the hill or through a turn. Gliding is used to describe sliding with maximum use of momentum and minimum interference of friction.

Gliding wedge
When the skis are moving in a convergent position with little friction between the edges and the snow. Typically this wedge is narrower and has less edge angle than a braking wedge.

Gluteus maximus
The largest and outermost muscle of each buttock that extends, abducts and rotates the thigh.

Goals
The desired lesson outcomes, which the instructor and the students agree upon.

Gravitational force
The force of attraction that the earth exerts on an object. This force acts at the body’s centre of gravity and points toward the centre of the earth.

H

Hard pack
Snow that has become very dense and hard. Often referred to as ice.

Hamstring muscle
Any of the three muscles at the back of the upper leg that flex the knee joint, abduct the leg and extend the thigh.

Herringbone
A diverging ski position useful for climbing hills. The skier faces uphill with the ski tips pointing at an angle away from each other and walks up the hill.

Hinge joint
Joints which allow movement in only one direction, e.g. the knee.

Hockey stop
A manoeuvre in which the skier quickly turns the skis sideways to the direction of travel and sets the edges, causing the skis to skid rapidly to a stop.

Hop turns
Any type of turn in which the skier hops into the air.

I

Inclination
Lateral movement of a body part relative to the slope. A skier can incline the whole body into the slope (inclination) or make lateral movements with different parts to a different degree (angulation).

Inertia
The tendency of an object to remain in its current state of motion (or lack of motion) unless acted upon by external forces sufficient to affect a change.

Inversion
Raising the medial border of the foot and or inward rotation of body parts (see also eversion).

Isometric contraction
Muscle contraction with no change in length of the muscle (see also concentric contraction and eccentric contraction).

L

Lateral Movement
Movement toward the side, away from the midline of an object. Lateral movements can be used to change the edge angle of the skis and change the amount of weight distribution from one ski to the other.

Leg rotation
Muscular effort of the legs to make the skis turn or tilt them up further.

M

Mass
The property of an object that causes it to have weight in a gravitational field. The amount of material that an object contains.

Matching
Steering the skis toward a parallel position from either a converging or diverging position.

Momentum
Product of mass times velocity. Speeding up, slowing down and turning are all changes in momentum. An external force must be involved in a change in momentum.

O

Off-piste
Terrain not on a prepared slope (see also piste).

Open question
A question that may elicit a broad range of responses, e.g. “What did you think of your turn shape on that run?” (see also closed question and generative question).

Opposing edges
Both inner or both outer edges as viewed by the skier, e.g. a wedge.

P

Packed powder
Snow that is compressed or groomed.

Parallel turn
A turn made on corresponding edges with a simultaneous edge release and engagement. The skis remain parallel throughout the turn, as opposed to converging or diverging.

Perpendicular
A relationship between two lines or surfaces such that they meet at a right angle (90 degrees).

Phases of a turn
1. Create phase (the beginning of the turn).
2. Control phase (the middle of the turn).
3. Release phase (the end of the turn).

Physical development
An area of development that focuses on how humans develop physically.

Piste
A slope that is groomed and prepared (see also off-piste).

Pivot
Rotating the skis about an axis perpendicular to their base. Pivoting is typically a quick movement performed on flat skis.

Platform
Created by setting the edges into the snow, a platform provides the skier with something to balance on and provides the ability to move as required.

Platform angle
The angle that determines whether a ski slips and skids, or grips and holds in the snow.

Pole
Use movements that involve ski poles, such as swinging, touching or planting the poles.

Posterior
Nearer to the back surface of the body.

Powder
Snow that is light, dry and fluffy.

Practice
Repetition of movement patterns or other activities designed to develop or refine a skill.

Pressure
The application of a force across a surface. The force of a skier’s weight is distributed through the feet as pressure when standing on a flat surface.

Progressions
A sequence of acts, movements or events oriented toward meeting an educational objective or goal. Progressions are connected from the least complicated to the most difficult.

Pronation
A flattening of the foot’s arch, with the ankle and foot rolling to the inside when the foot is weighted.

Proprioception
The sense of position and movements of the body and body parts in space.

Q

Quadriceps
The large extensor muscles at the front of the thigh.

R

Reinforcement
The process of rewarding students for appropriate performance. Recognising and praising students for reaching their achievements provides even more motivation for them.

Resistance
A force that hinders motion. Friction between skis and snow creates resistance. Wind or airflow across a skier’s body also creates resistance.

Responsibility code
A code that sets out the responsibility of each participant for safe conduct on the slopes and lifts.

Retraction
Pulling the legs up under the body by contracting the muscles of the abdomen and hips. This movement can be used to absorb pressure increases due to terrain changes or turn dynamics.

Reverse camber
The condition in which a ski is bent in the opposite direction from its natural camber.

Rocker
An exaggerated rise in the tip and tail of a ski or snowboard. Also known as reverse camber or early rise.

Rotation
A circular or rotational motion of a body about an axis.

Rotational movements
Movements that affect the rotation of the ski or skis.

Rotational separation
Rotation of one part of the body against the body part above it. Typically in skiing we incrementally create rotational separation utilising all rotational joints from the ground up.

Rotators
Muscles that serve to rotate a part of the body.

S

Sequential leg rotation
A non-simultaneous rotation of the legs, e.g. stem turns and step turns (see also simultaneous leg rotation).

Show
The use of visual images to deliver information. Demonstrating and drawing pictures on the snow are examples of this.

Side cut
Refers to the hour glass shape of a ski.

Side slip
A method of moving down the hill with the skis across the fall line. The edges are released to allow the skis to slip downhill.

Side step
A method of moving up the hill. With the skis parallel and across the fall line the skier steps up the hill.

Simultaneous leg rotation
Rotation of both legs at the same time (see also sequential leg rotation).

Skidding
A combination of sliding and slipping as the skis move through a turn. This occurs on a ski that is not carving.

Skier analysis
The process of assessing a skier’s ability and identifying cause and effect relationships.

Skill
Proficiency that is acquired or developed through training or experience.

Skill blending
Combining skills to create an overall performance.

Skill of active stance and balance
The coordination of all four movements to maintain balance and accurately direct pressure along the length of the ski.

Skill of edging
The coordination of all four movements to increase and decrease edge angle throughout the turn.

Skill of outside ski balance
The coordination of all four movements to direct pressure to the centre of the outside ski.

Skill of situational understanding
The skier’s ability to grasp the cognitive and finer concepts that are required of them in order to perform an activity.

Skill of steering
The coordination of all four movements to create and manage the steering (direction) of the skis.

Speed
The rate of motion or progress; the magnitude of velocity.

Spine
The bony column that forms the main support for the body and protects the spinal cord. The spine consists of 33 vertebrae.

Static exercise
The process of performing an exercise while standing still.

Steering
The use of muscular effort to control the rotation of the legs while travelling forward through an arc. Steering is a combination of movements of the body and ski performance.

Steering angle
The difference in the direction of the skis relative to the skier’s direction of travel.

Stemming
The displacement of one ski to a position convergent with the other ski. One result of stemming is that the skis are on opposing (inside) edges.

Straight run
A run directly down the fall line with the skis in a parallel position.

Student profile
The student profile is the unique combination of individual characteristics that each student possesses including physical attributes and background (sports experience), learning preferences, motivation, desires and emotional state.

T

Tactics
Methods used to gain a desired objective.

Talk
Communicating verbally or explaining verbally a particular movement/skill/exercise.

Task
An assigned activity that focuses on specific instructions, goals, movements or skills.

Tibia
The inner and larger bone of the lower leg.

Torque
A measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate around an axis point. The amount of torque created is affected by the magnitude and direction of the force applied and the distance at which the force is applied relative to the axis point. In simple terms, it can help to think of torque as a turning or twisting force. In skiing leg steering is an example of torque.

Traverse
To ski across the slope in a horizontal or diagonal path.

Turn shape
The shape of the turn through the arc (the exact path of the skis through the turn).

V

Vertical movements
Flexion and extension movements.

W

Wedge
A position in which the skis are converging so that the tips are closer than the tails and the skis are on opposing edges.

Wedge to parallel
A turn that begins with the skis on opposing edges (in a wedge) and finishes with the skis on corresponding edges (parallel).

Wedge turn
A turn with the skis in a wedge (converging) position.

Weight shift
Adjusting the distribution of weight between the skis, e.g. shifting weight from one ski to the other.

Wide track parallel
Turns in which the skis are at least hip width apart and leave a wide track in the snow.

Wind crust snow
Snow with a wind compacted layer on the top.